The yeast genus Tardiomyces gen. nov. with one new species and two new combinations.

PURPOSE: Rare yeasts species are increasingly reported as causative agents of invasive human infection. Proper identification and antifungal therapy are essential to manage these infections. Candida blankii is one of these emerging pathogens and is known for its reduced susceptibility to multiple antifungals. METHODS: To obtain more insight into the characteristics of this species, 26 isolates reported as C. blankii were investigated using genetic and phenotypical approaches. RESULTS: Among the 26 isolates, seven recovered either from blood, sputum, urine, or the oral cavity, displayed substantial genetic and some phenotypical differences compared to the other isolates, which were confirmed as C. blankii. We consider these seven strains to represent a novel species, Tardiomyces depauwii. Phylogenomics assigned C. blankii, C. digboiensis, and the novel species in a distinct branch within the order Dipodascales, for which the novel genus Tardiomyces is erected. The new combinations Tardiomyces blankii and Tardiomyces digboiensis are introduced. Differences with related, strictly environmental genera Sugiyamaella, Crinitomyces, and Diddensiella are enumerated. All three Tardiomyces species share the rare ability to grow up to 42 °C, display slower growth in nutrient-poor media, and show a reduced susceptibility to azoles and echinocandins. Characteristics of T. depauwii include high MIC values with voriconazole and a unique protein pattern. CONCLUSION: We propose the novel yeast species Tardiomyces depauwii and the transfer of C. blankii and C. digboiensis to the novel Tardiomyces genus.

Antifungal Resistance in Pulmonary Aspergillosis.

Aspergilli may cause various pulmonary diseases in humans, including allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA), and acute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA). In addition, chronic colonization may occur in cystic fibrosis (CF). Aspergillus fumigatus represents the main pathogen, which may employ different morphotypes, for example, conidia, hyphal growth, and asexual sporulation, in the various Aspergillus diseases. These morphotypes determine the ease by which A. fumigatus can adapt to stress by antifungal drug exposure, usually resulting in one or more resistance mutations. Key factors that enable the emergence of resistance include genetic variation and selection. The ability to create genetic variation depends on the reproduction mode, including, sexual, parasexual, and asexual, and the population size. These reproduction cycles may take place in the host and/or in the environment, usually when specific conditions are present. Environmental resistance is commonly characterized by tandem repeat (TR)-mediated mutations, while in-host resistance selection results in single-resistance mutations. Reported cases from the literature indicate that environmental resistance mutations are almost exclusively present in patients with IA indicating that the risk for in-host resistance selection is very low. In aspergilloma, single-point mutations are the dominant resistance genotype, while in other chronic Aspergillus diseases, for example, ABPA, CPA, and CF, both TR-mediated and single-resistance mutations are reported. Insights into the pathogenesis of resistance selection in various Aspergillus diseases may help to improve diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Fungi involved in rhinosinusitis in arid regions: insights from molecular identification and antifungal susceptibility.

Fungal rhinosinusitis (FRS) is a common problem worldwide, with an increasing burden in arid climate regions. Aspergillus species are the most common causative agents involved. In the present study, we investigated the prevalence, molecular characterization, and antifungal susceptibility of opportunists causing FRS in Sudan on the basis of strains collected over a period of 5 years. ß-Tubulin and calmodulin sequencing were used for species identification, and antifungal susceptibility profiles were evaluated by the protocol of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). Predominant species belonged to the Aspergillus flavus complex (n = 244), A. terreus complex (n = 16), A. fumigatus complex (n = 7), and other fungi (n = 17). Molecular identification of 94 strains of Aspergillus revealed the following species: A. flavus (n = 88), A. terreus (n = 1), A. citrinoterreus (n = 2), A. fumigatus (n = 1), A. caespitosus (n = 1), and A. sydowii (n = 1). Several A. flavus and an A. fumigatus isolates showed reduced susceptibility to azoles (minimum inhibitory concentrations above the clinical breakpoints or epidemiological cutoff values). Despite several mutations revealed in cyp51A of these isolates, none could be directly linked to azole resistance. Molecular identification of fungi causing FRS is useful to identify cryptic species and for epidemiologic studies. IMPORTANCE Fungal rhinosinusitis (FRS) is a significant clinical problem in arid regions. This study provides new insights into the prevalence, etiology, and antifungal susceptibility of FRS pathogens in Sudan, where the disease burden is high. Aspergillus species, particularly the A. flavus complex, were identified as the primary FRS pathogens in the region, with some evidence of antifungal resistance. The molecular identification of fungal species causing FRS is useful for detecting antifungal resistance, identifying cryptic species, and characterizing the epidemiology of the disease. The emergence of Azole resistance Aspergilli in Sudan highlights the need for continued surveillance and appropriate use of antifungal agents. These findings have important implications for clinical management, public health policy, and future research on FRS. Publishing this study in Microbiology Spectrum would enable other researchers and clinicians to build on these findings, ultimately improving the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of FRS.

European candidaemia is characterised by notable differential epidemiology and susceptibility pattern: Results from the ECMM Candida III study.

The objectives of this study were to assess Candida spp. distribution and antifungal resistance of candidaemia across Europe. Isolates were collected as part of the third ECMM Candida European multicentre observational study, conducted from 01 to 07-07-2018 to 31-03-2022. Each centre (maximum number/country determined by population size) included ∼10 consecutive cases. Isolates were referred to central laboratories and identified by morphology and MALDI-TOF, supplemented by ITS-sequencing when needed. EUCAST MICs were determined for five antifungals. fks sequencing was performed for echinocandin resistant isolates. The 399 isolates from 41 centres in 17 countries included C. albicans (47.1%), C. glabrata (22.3%), C. parapsilosis (15.0%), C. tropicalis (6.3%), C. dubliniensis and C. krusei (2.3% each) and other species (4.8%). Austria had the highest C. albicans proportion (77%), Czech Republic, France and UK the highest C. glabrata proportions (25-33%) while Italy and Turkey had the highest C. parapsilosis proportions (24-26%). All isolates were amphotericin B susceptible. Fluconazole resistance was found in 4% C. tropicalis, 12% C. glabrata (from six countries across Europe), 17% C. parapsilosis (from Greece, Italy, and Turkey) and 20% other Candida spp. Four isolates were anidulafungin and micafungin resistant/non-wild-type and five resistant to micafungin only. Three/3 and 2/5 of these were sequenced and harboured fks-alterations including a novel L657W in C. parapsilosis. The epidemiology varied among centres and countries. Acquired echinocandin resistance was rare but included differential susceptibility to anidulafungin and micafungin, and resistant C. parapsilosis. Fluconazole and voriconazole cross-resistance was common in C. glabrata and C. parapsilosis but with different geographical prevalence.

Targeting the 16S rRNA Gene by Reverse Complement PCR Next-Generation Sequencing: Specific and Sensitive Detection and Identification of Microbes Directly in Clinical Samples.

The detection and accurate identification of bacterial species in clinical samples are crucial for diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment. To date, sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene has been widely used as a complementary molecular approach when identification by culture fails. The accuracy and sensitivity of this method are highly affected by the selection of the 16S rRNA gene region targeted. In this study, we assessed the clinical utility of 16S rRNA reverse complement PCR (16S RC-PCR), a novel method based on next-generation sequencing (NGS), for the identification of bacterial species. We investigated the performance of 16S RC-PCR on 11 bacterial isolates, 2 polymicrobial community samples, and 59 clinical samples from patients suspected of having a bacterial infection. The results were compared to culture results, if available, and to the results of Sanger sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene (16S Sanger sequencing). By 16S RC-PCR, all bacterial isolates were accurately identified to the species level. Furthermore, in culture-negative clinical samples, the rate of identification increased from 17.1% (7/41) to 46.3% (19/41) when comparing 16S Sanger sequencing to 16S RC-PCR. We conclude that the use of 16S RC-PCR in the clinical setting leads to an increased sensitivity of detection of bacterial pathogens, resulting in a higher number of diagnosed bacterial infections, and thereby can improve patient care. IMPORTANCE The identification of the causative infectious pathogen in patients suspected of having a bacterial infection is essential for diagnosis and the start of appropriate treatment. Over the past 2 decades, molecular diagnostics have improved the ability to detect and identify bacteria. However, novel techniques that can accurately detect and identify bacteria in clinical samples and that can be implemented in clinical diagnostics are needed. Here, we demonstrate the clinical utility of bacterial identification in clinical samples by a novel method called 16S RC-PCR. Using 16S RC-PCR, we reveal a significant increase in the number of clinical samples in which a potentially clinically relevant pathogen is identified compared to the commonly used 16S Sanger method. Moreover, RC-PCR allows automation and is well suited for implementation in a diagnostic laboratory. In conclusion, the implementation of this method as a diagnostic tool is expected to result in an increased number of diagnosed bacterial infections, and in combination with adequate treatment, this could improve clinical outcomes for patients.

Retrospective Multicenter Evaluation of the VirClia Galactomannan Antigen Assay for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Aspergillosis with Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Samples from Patients with Hematological Disease.

Galactomannan (GM) testing of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid samples has become an essential tool to diagnose invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) and is part of diagnostic guidelines. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) (enzyme immunoassays [EIAs]) are commonly used, but they have a long turnaround time. In this study, we evaluated the performance of an automated chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) with BAL fluid samples. This was a multicenter retrospective study in the Netherlands and Belgium. BAL fluid samples were collected from patients with underlying hematological diseases with a suspected invasive fungal infection. Diagnosis of IPA was based on the 2020 European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC)/Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium (MSGERC) consensus definitions. GM results were reported as optical density index (ODI) values. ODI cutoff values for positive results that were evaluated were 0.5, 0.8, and 1.0 for the EIA and 0.16, 0.18, and 0.20 for the CLIA. Probable IPA cases were compared with two control groups, one with no evidence of IPA and another with no IPA or possible IPA. Qualitative agreement was analyzed using Cohen's κ, and quantitative agreement was analyzed by Spearman's correlation. We analyzed 141 BAL fluid samples from 141 patients; 66 patients (47%) had probable IPA, and 56 cases remained probable IPA when the EIA GM result was excluded as a criterion, because they also had positive culture and/or duplicate positive PCR results. Sixty-three patients (45%) had possible IPA and 12 (8%) had no IPA. The sensitivity and specificity of the two tests were quite comparable, and the overall qualitative agreement between EIA and CLIA results was 81 to 89%. The correlation of the actual CLIA and EIA values was strong at 0.72 (95% confidence interval, 0.63 to 0.80). CLIA has similar performance, compared to the gold-standard EIA, with the benefits of faster turnaround because batching is not required. Therefore, CLIA can be used as an alternative GM assay for BAL fluid samples.

Clinical Impact of Polymerase Chain Reaction-Based Aspergillus and Azole Resistance Detection in Invasive Aspergillosis: A Prospective Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: Invasive aspergillosis (IA) by a triazole-resistant Aspergillus fumigatus is associated with high mortality. Real-time resistance detection will result in earlier initiation of appropriate therapy. METHODS: In a prospective study, we evaluated the clinical value of the AsperGenius polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay in hematology patients from 12 centers. This PCR assay detects the most frequent cyp51A mutations in A. fumigatus conferring azole resistance. Patients were included when a computed tomography scan showed a pulmonary infiltrate and bronchoalveolar fluid (BALf) sampling was performed. The primary end point was antifungal treatment failure in patients with azole-resistant IA. RESULTS: Of 323 patients enrolled, complete mycological and radiological information was available for 276 (94%), and probable IA was diagnosed in 99/276 (36%). Sufficient BALf for PCR testing was available for 293/323 (91%). Aspergillus DNA was detected in 116/293 (40%) and A. fumigatus DNA in 89/293 (30%). The resistance PCR was conclusive in 58/89 (65%) and resistance detected in 8/58 (14%). Two had a mixed azole-susceptible/azole-resistant infection. In the 6 remaining patients, treatment failure was observed in 1. Galactomannan positivity was associated with mortality (P = .004) while an isolated positive Aspergillus PCR was not (P = .83). CONCLUSIONS: Real-time PCR-based resistance testing may help to limit the clinical impact of triazole resistance. In contrast, the clinical impact of an isolated positive Aspergillus PCR on BALf seems limited. The interpretation of the EORTC/MSGERC PCR criterion for BALf may need further specification (eg, minimum cycle threshold value and/or PCR positive on >1 BALf sample).

Olecranon bursitis caused by Scedosporium apiospermum in a patient treated with CAR-T cells.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR-) T cell therapy is a relatively new form of immunotherapy for hematological malignancies. Although patients are at increased risk of infection following CAR-T cell therapy, reports of fungal infections are scarce. We report a case of Scedosporium apiospermum infection causing bursitis of the elbow in a lymphoma patient after treatment with CAR-T cells. The fungal bursitis relapsed under posaconazole treatment, but was cured after surgical extirpation of the bursa.

Invasive Fungal Disease in Patients with Myeloid Malignancies: A Retrospective Cohort Study of a Diagnostic-Driven Care Pathway Withholding Mould-Active Prophylaxis.

OBJECTIVES: Patients receiving remission induction therapy for acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) are at high risk of developing invasive fungal disease (IFD). Newer therapies with targeted antileukemic agents and the emergence of azole resistance pose a challenge to the strategy of primary antifungal prophylaxis. We report the experience of a diagnostic-driven care pathway (DCP) for the management of IFD in these patients, using only culture-directed mould inactive prophylaxis. METHODS: Retrospectively, we used a single-centre study of consecutive patients receiving intensive chemotherapy for myeloid malignancies between 2014 and 2021. DCP consisted of serial cultures and serum galactomannan (sGM) screening, CT imaging, and bronchoscopy to direct targeted antifungal treatment. IFD was classified according to the 2020 EORTC/MSGERC criteria. RESULTS: A total of 192 patients with myeloid malignancies received 300 courses of intensive chemotherapy. There were 14 cases of invasive yeast infections and 18 of probable/proven invasive mould disease (IMD). The incidence of probable/proven IMD during the first cycle of remission-induction chemotherapy was 4.6% (n = 9). sGM remained negative in all cases of invasive aspergillosis (IA), with positive mycology findings in bronchoalveolar lavage. All-cause mortality was 9.4% (n = 18) 100 days after starting chemotherapy and was comparable between patients with or without IFD. The fungal-related mortality was 1% (n = 2). CONCLUSION: Diagnostic-driven based management without universal mould active prophylaxis is a feasible strategy in the management of IFD and limits unnecessary antimould treatment during intensive chemotherapy. The poor performance of serial serum galactomannan screening in detecting IA warrants further investigation.

Diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of otomastoiditis induced by Fusobacterium necrophorum: A retrospective multicentre cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Otomastoiditis caused by the anaerobic Fusobacterium necrophorum (F. necrophorum) often induces severe complications, such as meningitis and sinus thrombosis. Early diagnosis is difficult, partly because little is known about specific early signs. Comprehensive research about clinically chosen antimicrobial therapy has not been done yet and prognostic information about otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum is scarce. More knowledge about this subject is required. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we included all cases of otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum treated in two university medical centres in the Netherlands during the past 10 years. Data was gathered from patient records and analysed using independent sample T-tests and Chi2-tests. RESULTS: This study reveals that otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum potentially induces neurological sequelae. Thereby, 80% of all included patients (n = 16) needed readmission within six months due to recurrence or complications of otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum. Mean (range) of age, CRP and temperature were 4.5 years (0.9-29.3), 243 mg/L (113-423) and 40 °C (37-41). All patients were hospitalized and treated with antibiotics, mostly metronidazole (n = 13/16) and a ß -lactam (n = 15/16). Additional treatment contained low molecular weight heparin (83%, n = 10/12), dexamethasone (78%, n = 7/9) and/or surgery (80%, n = 12/16, whereof 9/12 mastoidectomy). CONCLUSIONS: Patients and/or their parents need to be informed about this potential unfortunate prognosis when otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum is diagnosed. To improve early diagnosis, otomastoiditis caused by F. necrophorum should be suspected and therefore immediately cultured when a) young children present with otomastoiditis, with b) high CRP values, and/or c) vomiting and decreased consciousness.

Resistance profiling of Aspergillus fumigatus to olorofim indicates absence of intrinsic resistance and unveils the molecular mechanisms of acquired olorofim resistance.

Olorofim (F901318) is a new antifungal currently under clinical development that shows both in vitro and in vivo activity against a number of filamentous fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus. In this study, we screened A. fumigatus isolates for intrinsic olorofim-resistant A. fumigatus and evaluated the ability of A. fumigatus to acquire an olorofim-resistant phenotype. No intrinsic resistance was found in 975 clinical A. fumigatus isolates. However, we found that isolates with increased olorofim MICs (> 8 mg/L) could be selected using a high number of conidia and olorofim exposure under laboratory conditions. Assessment of the frequency of acquired olorofim resistance development of A. fumigatus was shown to be higher than for voriconazole but lower than for itraconazole. Sequencing the PyrE gene of isogenic isolates with olorofim MICs of >8 mg/L identified various amino acid substitutions with a hotspot at locus G119. Olorofim was shown to have reduced affinity to mutated target protein dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) and the effect of these mutations was proven by introducing the mutations directly in A. fumigatus. We then investigated whether G119 mutations were associated with a fitness cost in A. fumigatus. These experiments showed a small but significant reduction in growth rate for strains with a G119V substitution, while strains with a G119C substitution did not exhibit a reduction in growth rate. These in vitro findings were confirmed in an in vivo pathogenicity model.

A 67-Year-Old Male Patient With COVID-19 With Worsening Respiratory Function and Acute Kidney Failure.

CASE PRESENTATION: A 67-year-old obese man (BMI 38.0) with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic atrial fibrillation, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia stage II, stable for 8 years after chemotherapy, and a history of smoking presented to the ED with progressive dyspnea and fever due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. He was admitted to a general ward and treated with dexamethasone (6 mg IV once daily) and oxygen. On day 3 of hospital admission, he became progressively hypoxemic and was admitted to the ICU for invasive mechanical ventilation. Dexamethasone treatment was continued, and a single dose of tocilizumab (800 mg) was administered. On day 9 of ICU admission, voriconazole treatment was initiated after tracheal white plaques at bronchoscopy, suggestive of invasive Aspergillus tracheobronchitis, were noticed. However, his medical situation dramatically deteriorated.

Molecular Mechanisms of 5-Fluorocytosine Resistance in Yeasts and Filamentous Fungi.

Effective management and treatment of fungal diseases is hampered by poor diagnosis, limited options for antifungal therapy, and the emergence of antifungal drug resistance. An understanding of molecular mechanisms contributing to resistance is essential to optimize the efficacy of currently available antifungals. In this perspective, one of the oldest antifungals, 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC), has been the focus of recent studies applying advanced genomic and transcriptomic techniques to decipher the order of events at the molecular level that lead to resistance. These studies have highlighted the complexity of resistance and provided new insights that are reviewed in the present paper.

Aspergillus Test Profiles and Mortality in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients.

The literature regarding COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA) has shown conflicting observations, including survival of CAPA patients not receiving antifungal therapy and discrepancy between CAPA diagnosis and autopsy findings. To gain insight into the pathophysiology of CAPA, we performed a case-control study in which we compared Aspergillus test profiles in CAPA patients and controls in relation to intensive care unit (ICU) mortality. This was a multinational case-control study in which Aspergillus test results, use of antifungal therapy, and mortality were collected from critically ill COVID-19 patients. Patients were classified using the 2020 European Confederation for Medical Mycology and the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology (ECMM/ISHAM) consensus case definitions. We analyzed 219 critically ill COVID-19 cases, including 1 proven, 38 probable, 19 possible CAPA cases, 21 Aspergillus-colonized patients, 7 patients only positive for serum (1,3)-ß-d-glucan (BDG), and 133 cases with no evidence of CAPA. Mortality was 53.8% in CAPA patients compared to 24.1% in patients without CAPA (P = 0.001). Positive serum galactomannan (GM) and BDG were associated with increased mortality compared to serum biomarker-negative CAPA patients (87.5% versus 41.7%, P = 0.046; 90.0% versus 42.1%, P = 0.029, respectively). For each point increase in GM or 10-point BDG serum concentration, the odds of death increased (GM, odds ratio [OR] 10.208, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.621 to 64.291, P = 0.013; BDG, OR, 1.247, 95% CI, 1.029 to 1.511, P = 0.024). CAPA is a complex disease, probably involving a continuum of respiratory colonization, tissue invasion, and angioinvasion. Serum biomarkers are useful for staging CAPA disease progression and, if positive, indicate angioinvasion and a high probability of mortality. There is need for a biomarker that distinguishes between respiratory tract colonization and tissue-invasive CAPA disease.

Multinational Observational Cohort Study of COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis1.

We performed an observational study to investigate intensive care unit incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of coronavirus disease-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA). We found 10%-15% CAPA incidence among 823 patients in 2 cohorts. Several factors were independently associated with CAPA in 1 cohort and mortality rates were 43%-52%.

Taskforce report on the diagnosis and clinical management of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis.

PURPOSE: Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is increasingly reported in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). Diagnosis and management of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA) are challenging and our aim was to develop practical guidance. METHODS: A group of 28 international experts reviewed current insights in the epidemiology, diagnosis and management of CAPA and developed recommendations using GRADE methodology. RESULTS: The prevalence of CAPA varied between 0 and 33%, which may be partly due to variable case definitions, but likely represents true variation. Bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) remain the cornerstone of CAPA diagnosis, allowing for diagnosis of invasive Aspergillus tracheobronchitis and collection of the best validated specimen for Aspergillus diagnostics. Most patients diagnosed with CAPA lack traditional host factors, but pre-existing structural lung disease and immunomodulating therapy may predispose to CAPA risk. Computed tomography seems to be of limited value to rule CAPA in or out, and serum biomarkers are negative in 85% of patients. As the mortality of CAPA is around 50%, antifungal therapy is recommended for BAL positive patients, but the decision to treat depends on the patients' clinical condition and the institutional incidence of CAPA. We recommend against routinely stopping concomitant corticosteroid or IL-6 blocking therapy in CAPA patients. CONCLUSION: CAPA is a complex disease involving a continuum of respiratory colonization, tissue invasion and angioinvasive disease. Knowledge gaps including true epidemiology, optimal diagnostic work-up, management strategies and role of host-directed therapy require further study.

Case series of four secondary mucormycosis infections in COVID-19 patients, the Netherlands, December 2020 to May 2021.

We describe four secondary fungal infections caused by Mucorales species in COVID-19 patients. Three COVID-19 associated mucormycosis (CAM) occurred in ICU, one outside ICU. All were men aged > 50 years, three died. Clinical presentations included pulmonary, rhino-orbital cerebral and disseminated infection. Infections occurred in patients with and without diabetes mellitus. CAM is an emerging disease and our observations underscore the need to be aware of invasive mucormycosis, including in COVID-19 patients without (poorly controlled) diabetes mellitus and outside ICU.

Posaconazole for prevention of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill influenza patients (POSA-FLU): a randomised, open-label, proof-of-concept trial.

PURPOSE: Influenza-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (IAPA) is a frequent complication in critically ill influenza patients, associated with significant mortality. We investigated whether antifungal prophylaxis reduces the incidence of IAPA. METHODS: We compared 7 days of intravenous posaconazole (POS) prophylaxis with no prophylaxis (standard-of-care only, SOC) in a randomised, open-label, proof-of-concept trial in patients admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU) with respiratory failure due to influenza (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03378479). Adult patients with PCR-confirmed influenza were block randomised (1:1) within 10 days of symptoms onset and 48 h of ICU admission. The primary endpoint was the incidence of IAPA during ICU stay in patients who did not have IAPA within 48 h of ICU admission (modified intention-to-treat (MITT) population). RESULTS: Eighty-eight critically ill influenza patients were randomly allocated to POS or SOC. IAPA occurred in 21 cases (24%), the majority of which (71%, 15/21) were diagnosed within 48 h of ICU admission, excluding them from the MITT population. The incidence of IAPA was not significantly reduced in the POS arm (5.4%, 2/37) compared with SOC (11.1%, 4/36; between-group difference 5.7%; 95% CI - 10.8 to 21.7; p = 0.32). ICU mortality of early IAPA was high (53%), despite rapid antifungal treatment. CONCLUSION: The higher than expected incidence of early IAPA precludes any definite conclusion on POS prophylaxis. High mortality of early IAPA, despite timely antifungal therapy, indicates that alternative management strategies are required. After 48 h, still 11% of patients developed IAPA. As these could benefit from prophylaxis, differentiated strategies are likely needed to manage IAPA in the ICU.